When our students absorb content in the classroom, they have to then be able to communicate their ideas and clarify meaning to deepen and demonstrate learning. For the EAL/D learner, it is critical that opportunities for speaking within the classroom are created with due consideration of certain aspects of language acquisition.
Firstly, it is important to acknowledge the anxiety that comes with learning a language. A great deal of research has suggested that this anxiety within the sphere of language learning is quite different to that faced in other situations. Horwitz et al (1986) is credited with developing this theory of foreign language anxiety and identifying two contributors to this anxiety that I would want to reference here. “Communication apprehension” is about the stresses that come about when language learners have little control over their articulation of content even as they struggle with identifying how to make meaning clear. As they function in this scenario, there is also the “fear of negative evaluation” because there is always the recognition that the listener must understand them and is therefore assessing them in what and how they deliver their content. This anxiety can impact on student academic performance. It is imperative that we recognise that many language learners have to grapple with this anxiety and it is possible to create the learning environment within an inclusive classroom, to support them.
The language acquisition progressions, such as the bandscales used in Queensland, highlight the supports learners need within a safe zone that encourage learning. The document states that a student at bandscale level 1 (new to standard Australian English) for speaking may spend some time in the silent phase possibly because of the overwhelming new learning environment they find themselves in. I’ve highlighted below key phrases from the document that demonstrates how these students require a sympathetic, nurturing listener if they are to develop through each phase of their development.
- prelevel 2 – “symphathetic” listener who prompts with support.
- level 2 – a familiar, supportive adult / supportive listener and environment
- level 3 – relies on conversation partner for support
- level 4 – relies on attentive conversation partner
- level 5 – contributes to new topic-specific discussions if teachers and contextual support is given and if time is allowed for processing before a response is expected.
An unfortunate phrase I hear too often is “what’s good for the EAL/D learner is good for all students”. This phrase, however, sometimes masks the extra considerations that must be put in place if we are to actually make a difference. So let’s look at a couple of routines that are quite well known, and consider how they can be deliberately manipulated to meet the needs of these learners. Incorporating these considerations will ensure that “communication apprehension” and ” fear of negative evaluation” can be minimised.
The science of learning has highlighted the need for checks on understanding and one such routine to develop in the classroom is cold calls. It is important, however, to recognise how to differentiate for the EAL/D learner depending on their language level. The EAL/D learner in this scenario will need time to reflect on any question and depending on their level of language acquisition, get the support they need to deliver a relevant response. When we know that the student will “echo words and phrases”(bandscale 1), “repeat formulaic sentences” (bandscale pre-level 2) or “construct simple formulaic sentences, guided by teacher modelling” (bandscale 2), we can provide appropriate supports. Consider
- placing the learner in a group of supportive peers or with a partner, with the specific instruction given to discuss answers during the wait time. When short, direct answers are required, assign the EAL/D learner to speak for the group. This works very well when you have developed this as a routine.
- recycling earlier learnt vocabulary. I generally have a set of cards ready with key words jotted down on each as the lesson progresses or prior to the lesson. When I ask a question, the EAL/D learner knows the routine of pointing to and then voicing the correct answer. It helps focus the student on the vocabulary and concepts for the lesson.
- routinely circling the classroom during wait time and quietly asking the EAL/D learner for a possible answer. If its correct, tell the student you are going to call on him to share the answer in a short while.
At the higher bandscale levels, students can begin to work more independently yet even up to bandscale 5 level, there will be the need to provide more processing time. A bandscale 4 student will “attempt to express complex thoughts and feelings but relies on an attentive conversation partner”. This implies that in a check for understanding segment of the lesson, the teacher must guide the student towards meaning making. In order to manage anxiety, this support must be provided during a one on one interaction. A bandscale 6 student can be disadvantaged if the teacher is not cognizant of the fact that there may be “difficulties in expressing precision of meaning in academic language” or when more complex language must be used to express an idea. It is critical in this case to recognise that supporting an understanding of language structures at this point is necessary as the student may not be making an error at content level but needs to articulate meaning accurately. For these students, routines you could establish are
- expecting students to write answers down during the wait time so you can check and correct any expressions before the sharing. This supports the student to develop a well -structured response. Note that this is different to the support given to a bandscale 2 student who is not yet able to freely express the concepts and is just copying off models.
- provide scaffolds to frame the construction of responses. This could be as simple as “The difference between A and B is ….. “. EAL/D learners at the higher acquisition levels need to develop their use of more complex conjunctions. Consider stretching their thinking by expecting them to use particular conjunctions such as “so” or “alternatively” to create sentences about that day’s learning.
Anxiety does impact on performance. We need to build a safe zone for learners if they are going to put themselves out there to experiment with language, and these routines I’ve highlighted here are easy enough to establish within the inclusive classroom.
References
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132.
Lee, S. (2026, February 1). A Hidden Barrier for English Learners. Retrieved February 12, 2026, from ASCD: https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/a-hidden-barrier-for-english-learners
Thu, T. T. (2011). A Review of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s Theory of Foreign Language Anxiety and the Challenges to the Theory. English Language Teaching.
Macintyre, P. D. (1995). How Does Anxiety Affect Second Language Learning? A Reply to Sparks and Ganschow. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 90-99.
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